Lakota Woman Is About Mary Crow Dog Coming Into a Sense of Identity as Essay

Lakota Woman Is About Mary Crow Dog Coming Into a Sense of Identity as a Lakota Woman - Essay Example This being the case, she is undergoing a crisis of identifying with each of the cultures, but the crisis is deepened even more by the fact that the whites do not readily accept and appreciated the Indian Lakota culture, since they have isolated and rejected Mary Crow Dog’s mother (Brave and Erdoes, 21). Her mother has persistently tried to fit into the new white culture, but the whites do not seem ready to accept her within their community. In fact, Mary puts it thus, "the life of an Indian is not held in great value in the State of South Dakota† (Brave and Erdoes, 25). It is this struggles that Mary’s mother is undergoing that has made her out to look for her elderly relatives and connect with the Lakota culture and tradition, where she would be readily accepted. The major impediment to Mary Crow Dog adapting the white culture is the fact that she is also doubtful whether she will be accepted, considering the fact that the white community had already rejected her mother. The journey in search for identity as a Lakota woman is neither smooth even in the Sioux nation where she embarks on building her identity (Brave and Erdoes, 77). Mary Crow Dog also faces hate, rejection and resistance in that community. She starts by joining an American Indian youth group, where she is initiated into the membership of the American Indian Movement. During her tenure in the movement, struggles are many and abuses are also present, thus Mary Crow Dog does not come out of it free, because she ends up becoming pregnant by one of the members of the movement. Even though the man by whom she got pregnant was one of the Indian Americans whom Mary wanted to identify with, she is rejected and abandoned, and thus has to bear and take care of his son on her own. Therefore, rejection and abuse serves as the two major factors that challenge Mary’s journey to establish an identity and instead leaves her with a â€Å"split personality† (Brave and Erdoes, 251). She had initially thought that she could be readily accepted and appreciated in her mother’s homeland as opposed to being in her father’s homeland, but the reality turned out to be different.  

The Baltic states of of Estonia Essay Example for Free

The Baltic states of of Estonia Essay The Baltic states of of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, apart from perhaps being regarded as the geographical center of Europe, is also to be recognized for its lush expanse of forests and greenery. Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians take enormous and unfaltering pride and love for their forests and the magnificent trees which comprise them. But more than being cherished for its aesthetic values, the Baltic forests served as a refuge and sanctuary for Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians in the years when the Baltic states were under war and upheaval. The Lithuanian poet Antanas Baranauskas wrote an ode to the forests of Anykscia, in which he expresses his sentiments for the once beautiful and magnificent forest which served as a momentary sanctuary for the Lithuanian people under a repressed era. â€Å"The Anykscai Grove†(1859) begins by ennumerating bitter remembrances of a once lush and rich country of a forest where pines, white-wood, burrows, moss, the humming of birds, sun-kissed earth and foliage, as well as forest scents and hums constitute a seeming paradise, which at present, ceases to remain as such. Baranauskas looks back to how his people took refuge in the woods, when the apparent evils of mankind were more than evident and palpable in the towns, cities and villages of Lithuania, men, women and children took to the woods, to a place such as the Anyksciai grove, where peace and tranquility was afforded to them. At the time it appeared as though it was all they needed, but it grew increasingly apparent that there was something else that needed nourishing, that needed to be made complete. People were dying of hunger, of cold, and cutting down trees for firewood, and extracting everything remotely edible from a mushroom or flower down to a trees very bark seemed to be the apt response. The Lithuanian forests said to have cried, not for the woes which fell on every tree and foliage in the forest, but for the woes which fell of the Lithuanian folk at the time, which was unfortunately commuted to their forests (Baranauskas). Under these unfortunate, but perhaps signficantly fortunate circumstances as well, the Baltic states and its people, or perhaps the Lithuanians, specifically, hold every tree, forest and foliage in Lithuania in a more than aesthetic, but also visceral regard, including, the Anyksciai Grove . References â€Å"The Anyksciai Grove.† Baranauskas, Antanas. Retrieved 28 January 2007 from http://www.balticsworldwide.com/news/features/lith_poem.htm

The Interpersonal Relationship Between Students And Teachers Education Essay

The Interpersonal Relationship Between Students And Teachers Education Essay Introduction Classroom management is a combination of many components, such as effective teaching strategies, providing meaningful content and developing interpersonal relationships, with the student-teacher relationship seen as having the greatest impact on how well the classroom runs and how well the students learn (Beaty-OFerrall, Green Hanna, 2010; Larrivee, 2009; Snowman et al., 2009). The focus of this paper will be to discuss the research surrounding the nature of the student-teacher relationship. It will further discuss the educational implications arising from this relationship and provide strategies to build respectful student-teacher relationships. In conclusion this paper will provide recommendations regarding future teaching practices arising from the literature. Overview and Critique of the Literature The interpersonal relationship students form with their teachers can sometimes be complex and challenging. Buyse, Verschueren, Doumen, Van Damme and Maes (2008, p. 367) conducted two studies, a quantitative study and a qualitative study, of classroom behaviour and climate by investigating the student-teacher relationship from the perspective that young children with problem behaviour in the classroom are at risk for developing more conflictual and less close relationships with their teachers. When teachers have less close relationships with misbehaving students, one outcome may be poorer academic achievement (McInerney McInerney, 2010). Buyse et al. (2008) identified two types of student behaviour on which to base their studies. Externalising behaviour such as hyperactive and aggressive behaviour and internalising behaviour such as anxious, anti-social behaviour. These types of behaviour tendencies are seen as risk factors for teachers developing less positive relationships with stu dents. This study focused, in part, on teaching style as a possible link between at-risk students problem behaviour and the quality of the student-teacher relationship. Buyse et al. (2008) hypothesised that the risk for less positive relationships between teachers and students will be lessened when more emotional support is offered by the teacher. Importantly, this study did not focus on the problematic child (displaying internalising /externalising behaviour) but on the classroom resources, namely the emotional support provided by the teacher, as being an indicator of school adaptation and a predictor for at-risk students future adjustment (Buyse et al., 2008). Rogers and Renard (1999) support this by stating that learning is achieved when teachers develop positive relationships with their students by becoming aware of their emotional needs and tending to these, resulting in the likelihood that unsuitable behaviour will no longer be an issue. Rogers and Renard (1999) claim teachers must understand the beliefs and needs of their students to develop positive relationships. The core needs that encourage students to want to learn and to self-monitor their behaviour are feeling safe both physically and psychologically, being presented with valuable and interesting content, achieving feelings of success, being involved in meaningful decisions and feeling cared about (Rogers Renard, 1999). Maslow (as cited in Snowman et al., 2009, p. 443) refers to these needs in his hierarchy of needs theory where he proposes an ascending order of basic human needs starting from physiological, leading to safety, belongingness and love, esteem and self-actualisation. This theory proposes that if basic human needs are met or gratified, then individuals will be motivated to seek fulfilling experiences, which in the classroom would mean, if the teacher can help students satisfy their lower order needs, then learning will occur as the student striv es for upper level satisfaction (Maslow, as cited in Snowman et al., 2009, p 442). A qualitative study conducted by Brown (2004) to assess classroom management strategies in relation to culturally responsive teaching found that the most significant aspect of classroom management is the nature of the student-teacher relationship. Brown (2004) identified a caring attitude from the teacher as being the most significant factor in a students social and emotional well-being at school. Through interviews conducted with school students, Brown (2004) discovered that students recognised which teachers cared about them and noted that students wanted to make a more personal connection with their teachers. The research revealed that the primary characteristic valued by the teachers interviewed about their classroom management practices was providing individualised attention to each student to develop a mutually respectful personal relationship with them. Miller and Pedro (2006) state that respect can be an appropriate way of acting and forms the basis of personality and charact er. Furthermore, they advocate that a respectful classroom allows students to feel both physically and emotionally safe and valued. Marzano and Marzano (2003) state that student achievement is impacted twice as much by the actions teachers take in the classroom than by any other school policies, curriculum or interactions. In their meta-analysis of over 100 studies, they found that in a one year period there were 31 percent fewer discipline problems in classrooms if students had a high-quality relationship with their teacher as compared to those that did not. This relationship is not central to the students considering the teacher to be a friend, but is characterised by the teacher displaying appropriate dominance levels, displaying appropriate cooperation levels and being aware of students needs (Marzano Marzano, 2003). In this case, dominance is referred to as the ability of the teacher to provide strong guidelines and clear purpose relating to both student behaviour and academic endeavour. Canter and Canter (as cited in Charles, 2008, p. 65) popularised the Assertive Discipline system, where classroom teacher s take charge by interacting in a calm, insistent and consistent manner with the students to promote an orderly classroom where the rights of the student to learn and the teacher to teach without interruption is upheld. The Canters system originally focused on the concept that the teacher set the limits and enforced them, but later the emphasis was moved to creating warm, trusting relationships with students through positive recognition and proactively dealing with behaviour problems (Charles, 2008). Alternatively, Freiberg and Lamb (2009) propose the person-centred classroom management system where a stronger teacher-student relationship is formed than in a traditional teacher-centred classroom. Cooperation and connectedness in the classroom focuses on the teacher and the students working as a team to build effective teacher-student relationships. Freiberg and Lambs (2009, p. 101) research revealed that the four key reasons that kids love school are: They were trusted and respected people cared about them (social-emotional emphasis); They were part of a family (school connectedness); They felt their teachers were helpers, encouraging them to succeed and listening to their opinions and ideas (positive climate); They had opportunities to be responsible, with freedom and choices, but not license to do whatever they wished (self-discipline). They conclude that the person-centred classroom emphasises a strong social-emotional focus where the climate is warm and productive because they believe that students want to know how much you care long before they want to learn how much you know (Freiberg Lamb, 2009, p. 102). Educational Implications One main question arising from the research would be how to best prepare pre-service and in-service teachers to respond to and build respectful relationships with students with diverse needs (Brown, 2004; Miller Pedro, 2006). Significant to Browns (2004, p. 286) findings is that the teachers he interviewed relied on their strong relationships with students built on trust rather than fear or punishment to maintain a cooperative learning environment that meets the needs of all learners whom they teach each day. Rogers and Renard (1999) state that when teachers can show an interest in students, both educationally and personally, students become motivated to learn. By treating students with respect, creating fun, interesting and valuable lessons, offering meaningful choices and building relationships where students can see teachers as people, then students will be more likely to learn (Miller Pedro, 2006; Rogers Renard, 1999). By including specific training in classroom management str ategies for inclusive teaching practices such as how to convey respect, have high expectations of all students and teach in a fair and consistent manner, the research concludes that culturally responsive, inclusive teaching does support student learning and achievement (Brown, 2004; Miller Pedro, 2006). Research suggests that school psychologists should consider the influence of other aspects of classroom climate when assessing individual childrens modifiable behaviours to improve the student-teacher relationship (Buyse et al., 2008). Often interventions focus too much on the child themselves and their behaviour, when classroom social makeup and teaching strategies and beliefs should also be considered. Teachers bring with them to the classroom their own set of experiences and beliefs which influence their relationship with the child and subsequent responses to their problem behaviour (Buyse et al., 2008). Ormrod (2008) argues that teachers must think critically and ask themselves why students behaviour and achievement levels may not be where they should be and question the influence of their own actions on the students. Reflective teachers are those that continually examine their own assumptions and practices and adjust their teaching strategies and ideas to better meet the needs o f all of their students (Ormrod, 2008). Teachers should continually seek new ideas from colleagues, books, magazines, workshops and other sources to enrich and solidify their teaching skills (Slavin 2009, p. 7). Ginott (as cited in Charles, 2008, p. 61) suggests congruent communication provides the basis for a positive, caring learning environment. Effective communication can be blocked if teachers make assumptions, have preconceptions, or stereotype their students, so these problems need to be avoided (Edwards Watts, 2008). Treating students with dignity and addressing situations with I-messages rather than you-messages when misbehaviour occurs, models appropriate behaviour rather than attacking the students personality or character (Ginott, as cited in Charles, 2008, p. 61). For example, the teacher could say I get angry when I see bread thrown around rather than You are a couple of pigs (Ginott, as cited in Snowman et al., 2009, p. 486). When a student is having problems, actively listening to what the student has to say without making judgements or comments, but responding through acknowledgement or showing interest provides the student with a nonthreatening way of being heard and under stood (Gordon, as cited in Charles, 2008). Showing empathy to students encourages open communication and helps build a respectful relationship (Beaty-OFerrall, Green Hanna, 2010). Communication skills are a critical factor is establishing and maintaining a warm and friendly classroom environment and positive teacher-student relationships. Communication involves sending and receiving messages both verbally and non-verbally. Non-verbal messages can be quite powerful and can contradict the verbal meaning accompanying them. Students can interpret non-verbal messages quite well through mannerisms and tone of voice. It is therefore important that teachers match their verbal and non-verbal messages (Edwards Watts, 2008). Teacher Effectiveness Training (TET) is a course that is conducted in Australia, instigated by Gordon in 1974, where teachers learn to observe and analyse communication patterns between students and teachers, learn to help students identify ownership of problems to establish responsibility of action and learn to use non-offensive, positive behaviour. Along with this they also learn conflict resolution techniques and how to assist students to become cooperative group members. Gordons program is a well-established model for classroom management practices and has been found to help teachers make breakthroughs with difficult students. Developing relationships based on caring attitudes and meeting each others needs encourages a more democratic approach in the classroom, with teachers giving students a say in what happens and not solving all of their problems for them. The strategies offered in the Teacher Effectiveness Training course are based on enhancing communication between teachers and students, effectively developing respectful relationships (Edwards Watts, 2008). Respectful relationships with students can be formed by using positive classroom behaviours such as making eye contact, arranging seating so that the teacher can move freely around the room amongst the students and encouraging all students to contribute to class activities and discussions. One way of achieving this could be to allow more wait time during questioning to encourage those that may normally be reluctant to answer to get involved (Marzano Marzano, 2003). Understanding the unique qualities of each student in the classroom is a critical component of developing the student-teacher relationship (Beaty-OFerrall, Green Hanna, 2010). Research has found that teachers who do not treat all students the same, but address each of their students individual needs are the most effective teachers, in contrast to those that are insensitive to diversity and treat all students equally (Marzano Marzano, 2003). To help build cooperation in the classroom teachers can take a personal interest in students by greeting them by name, talking informally with them about their interests and being aware of important events happening in their lives. (Marzano Marzano, 2003). Signalling to students that you care about them by smiling or using positive language such as I would like us to rather than you need to creates a classroom where students feel valued and have a sense of belonging (Rogers Renard, 1999, p. 37). Marzano and Marzano (2003) found, through research, that students prefer strong guidance and control from their teachers rather than a permissive attitude, therefore teachers must establish clear expectations and teach with assertiveness. Respectful relationships with students can be built by using assertive body language, an appropriate tone of voice and insisting on appropriate behaviour in the classroom (Marzano Marzano, 2003). Teachers who model respect through courtesy and civility can expect the same in return from their students (Miller Pedro, 2006). DeVries, Zan, Hildebrandt, Edmiaston and Sales, (2002, p. 36) argue that every classroom has a sociomoral atmosphere that may be viewed along a continuum from coercion to cooperation. In the coercive classroom students are required to follow the rules set by the teacher out of obedience without question. DeVries et al. (2002) discuss Piagets constructivist view of the adult-child relationship and argue that mutual respect in the classroom is shown when the teacher considers the students viewpoint and encourages social interactions where students cooperate with the teacher as well as each other. Teachers who use an authoritative teaching style, based on Baumrinds parenting styles, treat students fairly, do not criticise or use sarcasm, set high standards, have set rules and explain the penalties for breaking them, trust students to make appropriate decisions and teach and reward expected behaviour (as cited in Snowman et al., 2009, p.466). This encourages students to become autonomous learners who respect their teachers. In contrast, teachers who use an authoritarian teaching style find their students are compliant and unable to self-regulate their behaviour and teachers who use a permissive style find that their students can undermine the routines of the classroom leading to inappropriate behaviour (Snowman et al., 2009). Conclusion Providing strategies for teachers to find ways to build positive respectful relationships with all students can only improve the management of the classroom as a whole. Better classroom teacher preparation is where the focus must be in efforts to improve the education of all students from the most motivated to the most challenging (Beaty-OFerrall, Green Hanna, 2010). Specific teacher training in the area of sensitivity and making connections could help teachers to assess their own beliefs and practices which may lead to improvements in the quality of the teacher-student relationship (Buyse et al., 2008). Buyse et al. (2008) conclude that while their research has suggested emotionally supportive teachers may contribute to positive student behaviour and a closer student-teacher relationship, further study is needed to assess other classroom features which may impact on the quality of the student-teacher relationship. It is apparent in the literature surrounding classroom management th at establishing a respectful student-teacher relationship is a prominent precursor to positive outcomes for students and teachers in schools. This was best summed up in Brown (2004, p. 279) when Jeff, a Witchita high school English teacher said, Youre there to teach kids, not subjects. We often forget this point.

Are Mental Images Real? :: Reality Philosophy Philosophical Essays

Are Mental Images Real? This essay was my first stab at defining and discussing reality for my freshman seminar, What is Reality?. Using a questionable topic of reality (in this case -- are mental images 'real'?), we were to attempt a working definition and method for determing that which is real. Pretty lousy, I'm not gonna lie, but an interesting assignment. In the middle of the night, a boy awakes from the most horrifying chase scene he’s ever witnessed, terrified in a cold sweat. His heart is pounding, he’s lost his breath. And yet he wakes to the comfortable knowledge that it was â€Å"all just a dream.† The mind is a strange entity, in that it is essentially our guide to that which we experience - it perceives, processes, interprets, analyzes, and utterly convinces. We respond physiologically to our minds’ wills, be it with elevated heart rates, elation, or a deep-rooted sense of confusion in the inability to distinguish between what our mind says and what we know to be true. Herein we see the quandary of existence as human beings in society : are the images and experiences of our mind truly real? To a schizophrenic, a hallucination in which he is attacked by a big black dog is as real to him as a true assault by a New York mugger. Where, then, is the line drawn between a pure mental image and reality, and what does this say about the nature of reality? Enlightened philosopher Rene Descartes said, â€Å"I think, therefore I am,† claiming the reality and validity of his existence based on the inner workings of his mind. The mental images and experiences he had were, to him, the fundamental proof that, as an entity, he was truly functional and definite. Yet how many of us have, at one point or another, asked ourselves, â€Å"Is this really happening?† and, despite the knowledge that we must be conscious to be questioning thusly, still couldn’t verify or discredit the reality of the situation? To quote a classmate in a discussion about the nature of existence, â€Å"All that individual existentialism stuff sounds pretty funky, but you’ve got to believe in it for it to work.† Indeed, the idea that reality is created or destroyed by one’s own willingness to exist is a terrifying and thought-provoking concept, riddled with metaphysical questions of procedure and mechanics of life. Do peopleâ€℠¢s minds allow them to know of their own horrifying and grotesque deaths, or is there perhaps an â€Å"I-am-dying-peacefully-in-my-sleep† hormone released when the body becomes aware of its infinite peril?

Task One

While evaluating Company G's attitude toward social responsibility it seems they made some decisions based on the severe lack of revenue over a period time, which motivated them to close a couple of stores. Those stores, which were located in a major metropolitan area, were also characterized as high-crime areas. By closing those stores, it no doubt had a negative economic impact both directly and indirectly on the people in those store locations. For the now unemployed people they will eave to look for another source of income and benefits.The community members that relied on those stores for groceries, will now have to travel to another store possibly at a longer distance and will have to commit more time and money. Company Q also listened to years of requests from its consumers to offer better options for the health-conscience consumers. The product selections were limited and were known as high margin items, which meaner they are more expensive to produce and the company won't se ll as many. There is usually is very little intention with these products and so they can afford to hold on their inventory for more time.When the local food bank asked to give day-old product, Company Q opted to get rid of the food because they were worried about being swindled by their employees. The company perhaps has seen poor choices and conduct from their employees which may have led to deciding it was best to dispose of the food rather than deal with the possibility of fraud. Company Q doesn't trust it workers to make good choice's with their resources I recommend three steps to help increase the

Kidney Dialysis Essay

The kidney has two important functions for the body because it is connected to the body’s blood flow, it can help monitor blood pressure and secrete hormones, which can raise blood pressure in the event when it does not receive enough blood flow. However the most important job is filtration of blood. The kidney works to filter out toxins, especially chemicals that are formed as a result of cells using energy. The kidneys also work to maintain the balance of electrolytes within the body which can be lost during exercise. Cells need a good balance of electrolytes such as sodium and potassium within the body. If one kidney fails the other one is enough to maintain the body however if both fail to work it is a major issue and it causes problems as the kidney cannot filter the blood. How does a renal dialysis work: A dialysis machine tries to mimic some of the functions of a normal human kidney. One of the jobs of a kidney is to remove urea and some salts from the blood so they can leave the body in the urine. In a dialysis machine, blood from the patient runs through tubes made of a semi-porous membrane. Outside the tubes is a sterile solution made up of water, sugars and other components. Red and white blood cells and other important blood components are too large to fit through the pores in the membranes this acts like the glomerlus in the bowman’s capsule where ultra filtration takes place, but urea and salt pass through membranes into the sterile solution and are removed, this is what happens in a normal functioning kidney the small molecules can pass through the glomerlus but proteins and cells cannot as they are too large. What is haemodialysis: Kidney failure, whether it is permanent or temporary, is mostly treated using renal dialysis, which kind of replaces the kidneys filtration function. One form of renal dialysis is called hemodialysis. With hemodialysis, the patient’s blood is run through a machine with a special filter that helps clean out the waste products. Once the blood has been filtered, it is allowed to return to the body. One of the difficulties of hemodialysis is that it takes place at special medical centres and we are short of machines. This means that the patient has to visit three times per week that lasts between three to five hours per session, this takes up a lot of time. What is peritoneal dialysis: Peritoneal dialysis is the other main form of renal dialysis. With peritoneal dialysis, a sterile cleansing fluid called dialysis solution is injected into the abdominal cavity. The abdominal cavity is lined by a membrane called the peritoneum, which allows the waste products and extra electrolytes to pass through it and travel to the dialysis solution. The dialysis solution also contains a sugar called dextrose, which helps speed the process up. After the solution has sat in the abdominal cavity for four to six hours, it is drained out. This process is repeated four times per day. This type of treatment can take place at home because it makes use of a catheter, which allows the patient to connect a bag of dialysis fluid to a tube that feeds directly into the peritoneal cavity. This treatment allows a person to be a bit more flexible however the patient still needs to do this treatment a few times a day which means it takes up time of a normal persons life. The benefits and risks of a kidney transplant: A kidney transplant is much better than staying on a dialysis machine. A kidney transplant means you can live a normal life, you won’t have to go to the hospital a few times a week to get treated and this wastes time as it takes 2-3 hours on a dialysis machine 3-4 times a week this means that you cannot go away. Someone who’s on a dialysis machine has to give up a lot of time and this may get in the way as they may have to cancel many things during their normal daily life. A kidney transplant gives the body a whole new kidney and works perfectly where as a dialysis machine can only mimic a few of the roles of a kidney. The risks of a kidney transplant are that the body may reject the kidney as it is foreign so a very close tissue match is required. After a person has had a kidney transplant they have to be on drugs for the rest of their life so that the body does not reject the kidney. Kidney transplants can also cause infections or bleeding which can dangerous. Donor cards: A donor card is a card that shows that a person has agreed to give away some  of the organs after they die, and this can be used for transplants. However there are issues, some people believe that it is religiously wrong to give away your organs after you die and this causes a lot of problems. A family member may have given consent to give away their organs when they die but after they die their family members may object and not allow it and this causes a lot of problems. There is a long list for transplants and it is very hard to receive a transplant, donors help quicken this service. In England it is optional to become a donor or not. Another issue may be about race some people will not wish to have an organ from someone else from another race or the donor may not wish to give their organs to someone else from another race or religion and this is another problem that causes delays and means there’s a shortage of donors. Definitions: Ultra filtration: A high pressure filtration through a semipermeable membrane in which colloidal particles are retained while the small sized solutes and the solvent are forced to move across the membrane by hydrostatic pressure forces. Ultrafiltration is a vital process that takes place in the kidneys. With ultrafiltration, large molecules (such as cells and proteins) that are essential are separated or filtered out to be reabsorbed. The ultrafiltrate, in turn, is passed through the proximal tubule, the loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule, and a series of collecting ducts to form urine. Osmosis: Diffusion of a solvent (usually water molecules) through a semipermeable membrane from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration. Selective reabsorption: The act or process of absorbing again, as the selective absorption by the kidneys of substances (glucose, proteins, sodium, etc.) already secreted into the renal tubules and their return to the circ ulating blood. Microvilli: Any of the minute hairlike structures projecting from the surface of certain types of epithelial cells, especially those of the small intestine. Co-transport proteins: Facilitated diffusion: Transport of substances across a biological membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration by means of a carrier molecule. Since the substances move along the direction of their concentration gradients, energy is not required. Active transport: A kind of transport wherein ions or molecules move against a concentration gradient, which means movement in the direction opposite that of diffusion – or – movement from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. Hence, this process will require expenditure of energy, and the assistance of a type of protein called a carrier protein. ADH: a peptide hormone released from the posterior pituitary lobe but synthesised in the hypothalamus. There are 2 forms, differing only in the amino acid at position 8: arginine vasopressin is widespread, while lysine vasopressin is found in pigs. Has antidiuretic and vasopressor actions. Used in the treatment of diabetes insipidus. Osmoregulation: The process of regulating water potential in order to keep fluid and electrolyte balance within a cell or organism relative to the surrounding. Counter-current multipliers: Resources used: http://www.livestrong.com/article/75374-renal-dialysis-work-those-kidney/ http://health.howstuffworks.com/medicine/tests-treatment/question17.htm

Medicine and law Essay Example

Medicine and law Essay Example Medicine and law Essay Medicine and law Essay Introduction It is now a firmly established belief that legal and ethical considerations are integral to medical practice in the planning for the care of the patient. With the advances in medical sciences and growing sophistication of the legal framework in modern society as well as increasing awareness of human rights and changing moral principles of the community at large, doctors and other healthcare workers alike are now frequently caught in difficult dilemmas in many aspects arising from daily practice. Examples are plenty such as the duty to respect informed consent, truth-telling, breach of confidentiality, disclosure  of medical errors, rationing of scarce health resources, biomedical research, organ donation, etc. Besides, there is also growing anxiety both within the medical profession and in the community regarding increasing trends of complaints and lawsuits against doctors. From the bitter experience of many doctors who were engaged in complaint or lawsuits in the past, many of them had resulted from failing of their doctor-patient communication skill or inadequate ability to comprehend and resolve dilemmas in clinical settings. Medical ethics has developed into a well based discipline which acts as a bridge between theoretical bioethics  and the bedside. 1 The goal is to improve the quality of patient care by identifying, analysing, and attempting to resolve the ethical problems that arise in practice. 2 In addition to our moral obligations, doctors are also bound by laws and official regulations which form the legal framework regulating medical practice. It is now a universal consensus that legal and ethical considerations are inherent and inseparable parts of good medical practice across the whole spectrum. The disciplines of law and ethics in medical practice overlap in many areas and yet each has its unique parameters and distinct focus. Legal and Ethical Regulations of Medical Practice in History In ancient Egypt, practice of medicine was subject to legal restrictions. The right to practise was restricted to members of a certain class, and all doctors had to learn and follow the percepts laid down by their predecessors. Obviously, this was to protect the public from quackery. Fees for the doctors were paid by the State. If unsatisfactory results followed a course of treatment that had departed from the orthodox, the doctor responsible would be liable to punishment, which could be very harsh. Similar legal restrictions on medical practice were also  found in other early civilizations such as Babylon and India. 3 Throughout the history of mankind, medical legislation has continuously evolved to regulate the practice of medicine. The fundamental objective is to safeguard the standards of the medical profession and to protect the public against unskilled vendors of medicine who would be as injurious to the community as other criminals. The Justinian Code of the Byzantine Empire in 529 AD is probably the earliest law code found to contain clauses to require educational standard and proof of competence of doctors by examinations. It also restricted the number of doctors in each town and penalties were imposed for malpractice. By 12th century, there were well established medical legislations in Italy, namely the edict of Roger II of Sicily in 1140 and Frederick II in 1224, to prescribe organized medical teaching, set courses, examinations and qualifications. 3 In Hong Kong, laws on public health and medical practice, essentially an adoption of the English Acts, had been introduced from the early days. In 1884, the first Medical Registration Ordinance was enacted to regulate the practice of medicine in the territory. Nowadays, the Hong  Kong Medical Council is established and empowered by law to perform the following major functions: (a) assessment of qualifications and maintenance of Register of Medical Practitioners, and registration is the only valid licence to practise medicine; (b) formulating guidelines on the ethical and professional standards; (c) investigation of complaints of professional misconduct; (d) supervision of medical education and training; and (e) assessment of fitness to practise where a doctors health is of concern. 4 In addition to legal regulation, there were also codes of medical ethics to guide the doctors for proper conduct. The earliest code of medical ethics is the Hippocratic Oath originated in Greece in the 5th century BC, which evolved to regulate the standard of conduct and care by 4 MEDICAL SECTION August 2003 the medical profession at that time. 3 Indeed, the spirit of this 25-century old Oath was restated in the Declaration of Geneva by the World Medical Association in 1948. The Declaration is the basis of the modern version of the International Code of Medical Ethics, which was first formulated by the World Medical Association in 1949 with subsequent amendments by the World Medical Assembly  in 1968 and 1983 in Sydney and Venice respectively. Meaning of Law and Medical Ethics in a Nutshell In its simplest context, law can be defined as enforced rules devised by the State to govern the behaviour of its members for the mutual benefits of all. Observance of the rules must be guaranteed by some kinds of sanction directed against the rule breakers. In addition to laws for the general public, doctors are bounded by certain specific rules stipulated in statutes as well as code of professional conduct laid down by the official regulating authority, namely the Medical Council, and administrative codes  set by the institutions. Together, they form the legal framework regarding the practice of medicine, violation of which may lead to criminal or civil liability, or disciplinary actions. In addition to legal obligations, there are also expectations of society for the doctors and the goal of the profession based on long established moral principles of self-evident value, which define the moral framework of medical practice. Medical ethics can be defined as a self-imposed code of conduct accepted voluntarily within the medical profession, the observance of which depends on ones conscience and moral values. Law and medical ethics are both dynamic and are in a constant state of change with time due to changing circumstances and societal values. Thus, new legislation and court decisions give rise to changes of the law and new ethical issues emerge in response to challenges created by new technology, law or other influence. There is also wide difference in law from country to country because of factors regarding religion, culture, traditions, political systems and social standards. Fundamental Principles in Medical Ethics5 Medical ethics is an applied ethics which involves examining specific controversial issues such as abortion,  breach of confidentiality, end-of-life care, rationing of scarce medical resources. The objective is to try to identify the issue concerned, analyze it with reasoned ideas and arguments and arrive at a viable and morally acceptable resolution for it. In the realm of medical practice, it is difficult to hold rules or principles that are absolute in view of the many variables that exist in the context of clinical cases as well as new issues that arise as a result of changing circumstances and belief. Nevertheless, over the years, there are certain fundamental principles that have won a general acceptance as guideposts in the  moral analysis of ethical dilemmas in medicine. The fundamental principles that apply generally to medicine or health care at large are: (a) respect of patients autonomy; (b) the principle of nonmaleficence, i. e. , the duty to avoid harm or injury to patients; (c) the principle of beneficence, i. e. , the duty to do good to your patients, relieve their pain and suffering and to save life if you can; and (d) the principle of justice and act fairly. The values that encompass the four fundamental principles in medical ethics are self-evident. They are considered to be doctors prima facie duties to the patients  and society. It is necessary for a doctor to take all of them into account when they are applicable to the clinical case under consideration. Not infrequently, when two or more principles apply, they may be in conflict. For instance, the decision to operate on a case of acute appendicitis involves at least two competing prima facie duties on the part of the doctor. At one end, the doctor is obliged to provide the greatest benefit to the patient by performing an immediate appendectomy. At the other end, surgery and general anesthesia carry risks and the doctor is under the obligation to avoid causing harm to the patient. The resolution adopted must base on a balance between the demands of the competing principles by determining which carries more weight in the particular case. In the case of appendicitis, a generally accepted rational calculus holds that the patient is in far greater risk of harm from a ruptured appendix if the doctor do not act, than from the operation and anesthesia if the doctor proceed to surgery. Law and Medicine Broadly speaking, medical matters come into interaction with law in four aspects: (a) legislation and administrative regulations affecting medical practice; (b) court judgments  on problematic or controversial ethical issues in medicine; (c) medical matters or personnel may become subjects of lawsuits when issues of medical malpractice or alleged medical negligence arise; and (d) use of medical matters as evidence in courts for other criminal or civil proceedings such as cases of homicide, rape, wounding, workmans compensation, insurance claims and the like. The Interaction of Law and Ethics in Medical Practice Despite their distinctive roles, law and medical ethics overlap in many areas. It is indeed difficult to dissociate the legal and ethical basis of the professional duties of  doctors. For instance, both law and medical ethics address to issues of confidentiality, euthanasia, abortion, use of dangerous drugs, medical malpractice and the like. MEDICAL SECTIONVol. 8 No. 6 5 Both law and medical ethics aim at safeguarding a good standard of medical practice within the community. The overriding consideration is to ensure the health and welfare of the general public. It is fundamental that doctors should be law abiding or they may face civil/criminal consequences due to breach of the standards prescribed by legal requirements. On the other hand, an ethics percept that is not adopted into  law may be a significant professional and moral guidance but it is generally not enforceable. Often, lawmakers (courts and legislature) do take into account the views of medical profession, which may include ethical principle, when crafting laws affecting medical practice. Thus, ethical standards can be incorporated in the legislation and become part of the legal standards. At times, a doctors prima facie ethical duty may clash with his legal obligation. A notable example that often occurs is when the duty of confidentiality has to be breached by a court order and refusal to disclosure  amounts to contempt of court. It is true that law is the established social rules for conduct which, in most instance, incorporates ethical standards to which the society subscribe. However, there are also instances when laws may be bent to reach socially compelling results, which can deviate from what is ethical. An entire society can become morally corrupt. No doubt, the doctors in Nazi Germany and Japan who had participated in the most notorious human experimentations during the Second World War were ethically wrong and were convicted of war criminals in subsequent trials, although  their behaviour were not legally wrong under their social standards at that time. Growing Attention to Legal and Ethical Issues in Medical Practice Attention to legal and ethical issues in medical practice is growing intense in recent years both within the medical profession and in all sectors of the society. The ethical issues raised by new medical advances and the rapidly changing public values have provoked much debates among medical professionals and in other disciplines including lawyers, philosophers, sociologists, theologians, mass media and the community at large. Large scale  programmes such as the human genome project, end- of-life care, priority setting, rationing of medical resources, womens health have attracted profound research interest in their ethical, legal and social issues. The propensity to litigate is also on the uprising trend in recent years. This is part and parcel of the general trend that people nowadays are more conscious of litigation in all areas of life, particularly in the light of the increased awareness of their legal and human rights as well as rules of law. During the past century or so, medicine has evolved more as a science than as a mystical art. The media has also reduced the complex medical sciences to a level that will allow the general population to comprehend. Moreover, consumerism is now firmly established in medical practice and this has been promoted on a wide scale by patients rights organizations as well as authorities through public education and introduction of charters and performance pledges. In recent decades, there has also been a fall of the traditional paternalism in medical practice. Thus, the patients and their families are now more ready to speak up to protect their rights, to raise questions or doubts on the conduct  and skill of their doctors. Furthermore, issues of infringement of patients rights, malpractice and medical negligence are now attracting wide media coverage. This has undoubtedly served to alert the general public to such possibilities. The increase in medical negligence claims and litigation on issues of malpractice in recent years is reflected both in the number of lawsuits and the tremendous sum of monetary value involved. There is now greater availability of lawyers as well as compensation claim agencies who are ready to assist the patients and their families to institute legal actions against their doctors. A greater proportion of the general population is now aware that the courts can and, on occasion, do provide substantial monetary compensation for personal injury. This has obviously enhanced the growing compensation awareness in the public mind. Even in a lawsuit that has not been successful in proving the defendant doctors liability to the plaintiffs personal injury, it can still devastate the doctors career because of the media coverage it receives. The new wave of class-action lawsuits against healthcare professionals and organizations in North America is particularly worrying. The assembling of a  group of plaintiffs instead of a single plaintiff greatly expands the defendants exposure to liability. Besides, it is also likely that the media attention on such a case will attract additional potential plaintiffs. 6 Another factor that has been suggested by some health care professionals is the depersonalization of the doctor- patient relationship. It is undoubtedly easier to sue a relatively anonymous defendant, such as a hospital consultant, than to sue a family doctor whom one has known for years, and this is even truer of hospital authorities. The Scope of Law and Ethics in Medical  Practice The scope of law and ethics in medical practice is expanding all the time. Any attempt in listing out the core topics can neither be complete nor prescriptive. Some topics are of interest to doctors of all specialties whilst some topics are more important to particular specialties. The following list is based largely on the consensus statement of the teachers of medical ethics and law in 6 MEDICAL SECTION August 2003 UK on a model for core curriculum in medical ethics and law within medical education: 1. Official regulations of medical practice (a) Statutes laid down by legislature e. g.  Cap 161 Medical Registration Ordinance Cap 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance Cap 137 Antibiotics Ordinance Cap 138 Pharmacy and Poisons Ordinance (b) List of Misconduct in a Professional Respect issued by the Medical Council of Hong Kong7 2. Foundations of doctor-patient relationship1,5 (a) Doctors obligation of fidelity – patients expect that doctors are trustworthy, knowledgeable and competent. Doctors are looked upon as trustees of patients medical welfare, always acting in the interests of the patients. We owe a duty of not causing harm to our patients (the principle of nonmaleficence). We also have a duty to do good  to our patients if we can (the principle of beneficence). (b) Respect of patients rights, including the basic principle of human rights and their relations with moral and professional duties. (c) Respect of privacy and confidentiality – the doctor- patient relationship is essentially founded on trust and confidence. Doctors are expected to respect for patients privacy and disclose patients information only when justified. At times, there is often conflict of interest between individuals or between and individual and the public with regard to disclosure of patients information. There is also  legal requirement to protect privacy in the general sense (Cap 486 Personal Data (Privacy) Ordinance). (d) Respect of patients autonomy informed consent and refusal to treatment are basic patients rights. There are several related issues regarding the determination of patients capacity to share in decision-making (patients competence), the principle of risk-benefit equation to decide how much information to be given to patients (therapeutic privilege) and the concept of surrogate decision in cases of incompetent patients. Difficult dilemmas can arise when this is in conflict with other prima facie duties of the  doctors such as the situation when emergency interventions are required in cases of incompetent patients. (e) The difficult patients, noncompliance, hostile patients and abuse of patients rights. (f) Breach of duties leading to medical negligence or malpractice claims. 3. Death and related issues (a) The definition and diagnosis of death. (b) The persistent vegetative state – what is the meaning of human life: an organism or a person with body and mind? Is there a need for advancing the definition of life; from somatic death and brain stem death to neocortical death? 8 (c) End-of-life care – whether life support decision is  to prolong life or suffering? Difficult issues of medical futility, forgoing life-sustaining treatment, doctor-assisted suicide and euthanasia have immense ethical and legal implications. A fundamental question for doctors is whether letting to die is the same as euthanasia. 8 (d) Legal and ethical issues in organ transplantation. 9 (e) Death certification and disposal of dead bodies. 10, 11 (f) Coroner and medico-legal investigations of death. 12 4. Reproductive medicine and genetics (a) The management of infertility – the legal and ethical issues in artificial insemination and surrogate motherhood. (b) The control of fertility – sterilization and other forms of contraception. (c) The right of foetus – the legal13 and ethical issues in abortion and the question of maternal-foetal conflict. (d) Prenatal screening and wrongful life, genetic counseling and eugenics. (e) Genetic therapy – whether it is to treat the abnormal or to improve the normal. (f) Cloning of human being – its legal and ethical considerations. 5. Biomedical human research and experimentation (a) The legal14 and ethical15 regulations. (b) Ethics committee consultations. (c) The discrepancy between developed and developing countries. 6.  Special issues in psychiatry (a) Legal16 and ethical justification for detention and treatment without consent. (b) Informed consent in patients suffering from mental illness – the question of competence by the state of mind. (c) Conflicts of interests between the patients, families and the society. (d) Mental disorders and crime – mental disorders and liabilities of an individual and issues of compulsory treatment for offenders (especially in cases of sex offenders); the role of psychiatrist as an expert witness. 7. Special issues in paediatrics (a) Consent in minor. (b) Conflicts of interest between parental rights, the  rights of the child and the duty of the paediatrician. (c) Legal and ethical issues in cases of child abuse. 17 (d) The paediatricians role in child protection. 8. Healthcare delivery and resource allocation18 (a) Dilemmas in deciding a fair distribution of scarce medical resources and the rights of individual patient to healthcare services. (b) Healthcare cost crisis: its political, social and economic implications. 19 (c) The criteria for rationing healthcare resources and MEDICAL SECTIONVol. 8 No. 6 7 the sustainability of the healthcare services – does rationing simply means cutting or trimming  healthcare budget? What is a fair healthcare policy? What is the direction of healthcare reform? (d) Ethical considerations in the business aspects of healthcare – economic constraints, models of remuneration, professional freedom. The issues related to Health Maintenance Organizations and other managed care providers. (e) Responsibility of individuals for their own health. (f) Global distributions of healthcare resources: a gross unevenness. 9. Quality assurance (a) Continuity of care for patients. (b) Communications between doctors and patients, doctors and doctors. The duty to consult when  necessary. (c) Peer review and clinical audits, continuous medical education. (d) Truth-telling, disclosure of medical errors and incompetent colleagues. 20, 21 (e) Healthcare complaints – what is a fair and user- friendly mechanism to receive and resolve complaints. 10. Use of medical matters as evidence in courts (a) The medical witness – a doctor may be called to attend courts to give professional or expert evidence, or both. The objective of medical evidence is to assist the court in determining the truth and hence enabling justice to be done. A medical witness must have impartiality, reliability,  clarity and relevancy. His duty is to give evidence on a scientific objective manner commensurating with his role as a doctor as well as his expertise. (b) The issue of hired gun. (c) Conflict between a doctors duties to his patient and his role as a medical witness. Conclusion In recent years, teaching of law and ethics in medical practice has emerged as a core curriculum in both undergraduate and postgraduate medical education in many developed countries such as the US, Canada, UK, Australia and New Zealand. 22, 23 Research and discussion papers on clinical ethics and reports on medico-legal  cases now constitute a significant contribution to the expansion of medical literature, which have enriched our knowledge in the areas with widening scopes. 2 This is perhaps a major area that the medical education and training in Hong Kong need to catch up. Doctors are now expected to have knowledge and understanding of the principles of medical ethics and the legal responsibilities of the medical profession. They should also have the ability to recognize complex legal and ethical issues arising from clinical practice and sound decision-making skills to resolve them. 24 Often there is  no single or universal answer to such issues. The views within the medical profession as well as the public change constantly with time and vary from one country to another. It is therefore prudent for doctors to keep themselves informed about the current views, and when in doubt, be ready to consult their peers, lawyers and ethicists. References 1. Fletcher JC, Hite CA, Lombardo PA, Marshall MF, eds. Introduction to Clinical Ethics. Frederick Maryland: University Publishing Group, 1995. 2. Siegler M, Pellegrino ED, Singer PA. Clinical ethics revisited. BMC Medical Ethics 2001; (available from: biomedcentral. com/1742-6939/2/1). 3. Camps FE ed. Gradwohls Legal Medicine, Chapter 1. Bristol: John Wright Sons Ltd. , 3rd edition, 1976. 4. The Medical Council of Hong Kong Homepage: mchk. org. hk. 5. Beauchamp TL, Childress JF. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press, 4th edition, 1994 6. Lightstone S. Class-action lawsuits medicines newest legal headache. JAMC 2001;165(5):622. 7. Medical Council of Hong Kong. Professional Code and Conduct: For the Guidance of Registered Medical Practitioners. Hong Kong: HKMC, revised 2000. 8. Arras JD, Steinbock B, eds. Ethical Issues in Modern  Medicine, Part II: Defining Death, Forgoing Life-Sustaining Treatment, and Euthanasia. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Co. , 4th edition, 1995. 9. Cap 465 Human Organ Transplant Ordinance, Law of Hong Kong. 10. Cap 174 Births and Deaths Registration Ordinance, Law of Hong Kong. 11. Cap 132 Public Health and Municipal Services Ordinance, Law of Hong Kong. 12. Cap 504 Coroners Ordinance, Law of Hong Kong. 13. Cap 212 Offence Against Persons Ordinance, Law of Hong Kong. 14. Cap 278 Medical (Therapy, Education and Research) Ordinance, Law of Hong Kong. 15. Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences. International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects. CIOMS, revised 2002. 16. Cap 136 Mental Health Ordinance, Law of Hong Kong. 17. Social Welfare Department, Government of HKSAR. Procedures for Handling Child Abuse Cases. Hong Kong: SWD, revised 1998. 18. McKneally MF, Dickens BM, Meslin EM, Singer PA. Bioethics for clinicians: 13. Resource allocation. CMAJ 1997;157: 163-7. 19. Health and Welfare Bureau, Government of HKSAR. Lifelong Investment in Health: Consultation Document on Health Care Reform. Hong Kong: 2001. 20. Hebert PC, Levin AV, Robertson G. Bioethics for clinicians: 23. Disclosure of medical error. CMAJ 2001;164(4):509-13. 21. Burrows J. Telling tales and saving lives: Whistleblowing The role of professional colleagues in protecting patients from dangerous doctors. Medical Law Review 2001;9: 110-29. 22. Position Statement: An ethics core curriculum for Australasian medical schools. Med J Aus 2001;175: 205-10. 23. Doyal L, Gillon R. Medical ethics and law as a core subject in medical education. BMJ 1998;316:1623-4. 24. Australian Medical Council. Goals and objectives of basic medical education. Guidelines for assessment and accreditation of medical schools. Canberra: AMC, 2000.

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Is globalization a net benefit or disadvantage to the international system - Essay Example 23), which is a symbol of unifying entities using selected ideologies. However, so many debates concerning the issues of whether globalization is of any benefits to the world or if it has negative impacts on international systems. So many arguments relate structural violence to globalization. In developed countries, such a situation helps them in overcoming most economic barriers (Guehenno: pp. 28). This notion has brought â€Å"westernization† because such countries have overpowered the international markets. In this case, structural violence disrupts peace globally. In return, such violence gives birth to disparity a catalyst to major conflicts. This could be the reason as to why there is widespread social polarization in the current international system. Through globalization, there is an evidence of imbalance in power in the international systems. Such imbalances lead to suspicions among countries, which in turn increase foreign policy costs and creating new kinds of threats (Baylis, Smith S. & Owens: pp. 110). The assumptions on threats are due to the change in global security. Already, the internet, intercontinental airlines, most media houses and international companies are among the pace setters in globalization. These global landmarks have led to interdependence. For this reason, countries are less concerned with the provision of security to other countries unless where they feel threatened. Nations with a common interest seem to gang up together with the aim of maximizing on the global nature by influencing most security matters. This, according to the arguments made by the Neo-Marxists, leads to inequality. A combination of all these issues revolving around structural violence results to global instability. The status of a nation in an international system is greatly affected by globalization. Through centralization, most states are under threat of losing monopoly

Disorders Involving the Sex Chromosomes Term Paper

Disorders Involving the Sex Chromosomes - Term Paper Example The chromosomes are numbered such that they are given the numerical figures 1†¦..22 and the 23rd is the one that determines the individual sex. In total there are 23 chromosomes in human beings, the 23d being the sex chromosome with x and y as the determinants. In the normal female, the chromosome number 23 will read xx while that of the male will be reading XY (Pinsky, Erickson and Schimke 234). The alteration of the normal reading leads to what is called chromosomal disorders. The chromosomal disorders leads to the addition or deletion of either X or Y-chromosomes. Several disorders have been identified as disorders in the sex chromosomes and demonstrate distinct characteristics as manifested phenotypically (Goldberg 157). It must be noted that there are significant difference between the disorders that arise from the autosomal chromosomes (1†¦22) and those of the sex chromosomes (Passarge 98). The chromosomes that determine sex in man is coded as XY while that of females is XX, the alteration of the arrangements may lead to any of the following conditions. Turner Syndrome It is coded as XO; it is referred to as monosomy X given that the complement Y-chromosomes is missing. The fact that the syndrome results into just one X chromosome without the Y chromosome, such individuals are always females (Milunsky and Milunsky 245). The incidence of the syndrome is quite uncommon and can only be found one in every five thousand people. One of the most significant effects of the condition is sterility (Milunsky and Milunsky 256). Klinefelter Syndrome This is also a rare syndrome as for every 1000 there is only one person with the condition. Unlike Turners syndrome that involves deletion of the Y chromosome, it involves the addition of the X chromosomes (Goldberg 165). The syndrome can appear in two forms XXY or XXXY. Most of the individuals affected by this kind of disorder are males due to the presence of the Y-chromosomes. The presence of the compounded X c hromosomes makes the individuals with the condition to posses female like qualities. The individuals are sterile and in the cases of the XXXY type retardation may results (Goldberg 184). Jacobs Syndrome In the Jacobs syndrome the individuals have the sex chromosomes coded as XYY, there is an additional Y chromosome and the individuals are always males or abnormally manifest male characteristics (Passarge 112). These individuals are supper human beings as they are very tall and in many cases may suffer from acne. Research also indicates that most of these people are criminals as they show abnormally high-level aggression and most of the inmates are of these conditions. The frequency of this syndrome is 1 in every 2000 (Passarge 119). Triple-X Most of the individuals in this category are females as the syndrome involves the addition of the X chromosome and the various codes are as follows XXX, XXXX, and XXXXX (Pinsky, Erickson and Schimke 253). Due to the extra X chromosomes, the casu alties assume abnormal female characteristics and the associated problems such as those of infertility as well as retarded mental acuity. The occurrence of this syndrome is in the frequency of 1 in every 700 individuals (Pinsky, Erickson and Schimke 257). With the realization of the fact that sex chromosomes have defects that can lead to the changes in the phenotypic characteristics of individuals has sparked a series of researches in the field of genetics. One of the current research researches that is currently on going is the identification of the component of that is essential

Is globalization a net benefit or disadvantage to the international Essay

Is globalization a net benefit or disadvantage to the international system - Essay Example 23), which is a symbol of unifying entities using selected ideologies. However, so many debates concerning the issues of whether globalization is of any benefits to the world or if it has negative impacts on international systems. So many arguments relate structural violence to globalization. In developed countries, such a situation helps them in overcoming most economic barriers (Guehenno: pp. 28). This notion has brought â€Å"westernization† because such countries have overpowered the international markets. In this case, structural violence disrupts peace globally. In return, such violence gives birth to disparity a catalyst to major conflicts. This could be the reason as to why there is widespread social polarization in the current international system. Through globalization, there is an evidence of imbalance in power in the international systems. Such imbalances lead to suspicions among countries, which in turn increase foreign policy costs and creating new kinds of threats (Baylis, Smith S. & Owens: pp. 110). The assumptions on threats are due to the change in global security. Already, the internet, intercontinental airlines, most media houses and international companies are among the pace setters in globalization. These global landmarks have led to interdependence. For this reason, countries are less concerned with the provision of security to other countries unless where they feel threatened. Nations with a common interest seem to gang up together with the aim of maximizing on the global nature by influencing most security matters. This, according to the arguments made by the Neo-Marxists, leads to inequality. A combination of all these issues revolving around structural violence results to global instability. The status of a nation in an international system is greatly affected by globalization. Through centralization, most states are under threat of losing monopoly

Accounting Study Essay Example for Free

Accounting Study Essay CA1-18 a) The ethical issue is the corporate reporting department is not recording the late entries and reporting incorrect numbers on purpose. b) Troy Normand is acting immorally because as a manager he is not making sure that the numbers are being recorded correctly. c) I would have done what a manager supposed to do and make sure the numbers and late entries are being recorded correctly. d) The major stakeholders are the employees. C-A2-4 A 1) Relevance- accounting information must be capable of making a difference in a decision. Predictive value, confirmatory value, and materiality help make up relevance. 2) Faithful representation- that the numbers and descriptions match what really existed or already happened. Completeness, neutrality, free from error help make up faithful representation. 3) Understandability- decision makers vary widely in the types of decisions they make, how they make decisions, the information they already possess or can obtain from other sources, and their ability to process the information. The quality of information that lets reasonably informed users see its significance. 4) Comparability- Information that is measured and reported in a similar manner for different companies is considered comparable. Enables users to identify the real similarities and differences in economic events between companies. 5) Consistency- is presented when a company applies the same accounting treatment to similar events, from period to period. Through such application, the company shows consistent use o f accounting standards. See more:  The 3 Types of Satire Essay B 1) If I want to buy shares in Pepsi Co I will sacrifice faithful representation for a gain from relevance. I can check the predictive value,  confirmatory value, and materiality of the company for the future value. 2) If I am choosing between two companies General Motors and Toyota I sacrifice relevance and chose consistency to see which company shows consistent use of accounting standards from period to period, to help me make my decision. 3) I am looking to invest in either Toyota or General Motors I sacrifice consistency and gain from using comparability. I can see the differences in the similar companies in a similar manner. 4) If I own shares in General Electric and I see that General Electric issues a three month report that shows interim earnings have declined significantly. I will sacrifice relevance and gain from understandability because of the information and sell my shares. C c) The Decision Usefulness criterion should be used to evaluate trade-offs between information characteristics. CA2-5 a) Realized or realizable, earned. A company realizes revenue when it exchanges products, merchandise, or other assets for cash or claims to cash. Revenue is realizable when the assets received or held are readily convertible into cash or claims to cash. A company delays recognition of revenues until earned. Revenues are considered earned when the company substantially accomplishes what it must do to entitle to the benefits represented by the revenues. B 1) Revenue is realized because it exchanges products for a claim to cash. 2) Revenue is realizable because of the claims to cash and the publication of the magazine every month. 3) Revenue is earned because the company accomplished what it must do to be entitled to the benefits.

Study on Enhancing Architecture Appreciation

Study on Enhancing Architecture Appreciation Frank Lloyd Wright believed space was the essence of architecture. The reality of architecture is actually not in the solid elements that seem to make it, but rather the reality of a room was to be found in the space enclosed by the roof and walls, not in the roof and walls themselves. Spaces have intrinsic meanings that result from their spatial and visible forms and extrinsic meanings that evolved out from each of our different experiences with regards to each individuals own background and profession. We experience the spaces interior space in terms of their form, their structure, their aesthetics and how others and us relate to them. This constitutes the reality of our physical experience, but spaces not only have an existence in reality, they also have a metaphorical existence. They express meaning and give out certain messages about the space, just as the way we dress or furnish our homes gives people certain messages about us. They tell stories, for their forms and space plan ning give us hints about how they should be experienced or perceived. Space is meaningless without its inhabitants to experience it and to experience a space is the only gateway to understanding space. At certain periods architects have chosen to create exciting, complex spaces with curving, undulating walls. The period of the baroque and rococo in Europe was one such time when interiors were designed to entice and captivate the onlooker and draw them into a world of illusion created through painting, sculpture and the curving forms of architecture. Craftsman played the prominent role at that time when only good workmanship and complicated work pieces would amaze anyone. Now in this totally new era, right here in this century, wonders are different and expectations higher with meanings and philosophy equally deep but entirely unlike. The heightening desire and importance of communication among the space and the perceiver with the spatial experience created seem to become a dominating factor and a characteristic of spatial design in this new era. If architecture can be said to have a poetic meaning, we must recognise that what it says is not independent of what it is. (Alberto Pà ©rez-Gà ³mez, The Space of Architecture: Meaning as Presence and Representation, Questions of Perception: Phenomenology of Architecture, 2006) Architecture is not an experience that words can translate later. Like the poem itself, it is its space as presence which constitutes the meaning and the experience. This experience in turn differs for every individual. What one perceives is a result of interplays between past experiences, including ones culture and the interpretation of the perceived. Different aspects of the experiential spaces and the perceiver also ignite different spatial perceptions. Understanding the different experiential components, the philosophy of perception and how spatial perception affects and reflects people differently helps us to enhance our appreciation for architecture and to heighten our enjoyment of space. My aim in this paper is to explore this hypothesis and my exposition will be presented and discussed in the following thesis. Categories of different experiential components Spatial experience created is the most complex and diverse of all the components of architecture, for it involves how architecture engages all of our senses, how it shapes our perception and enjoyment or discomfort of our built environment. Understanding this is perhaps the area with which most people, architects and users alike, have difficulty. This is partly because it involves, at every turn, subjective responses which differ from individual to individual. Since the spatial experience we derive from architecture is generated by our perception of it, we must start by considering how the human eye and mind receive and interpret the visual data of architectural experience. How does the psychology of vision and sensory stimulation affect our perception of architecture? Perhaps the most fundamental concept is that the mind, particularly the human mind, is programmed to seek meaning and significance in all sensory information sent to it. The result is that the mind seeks to place all information fed to it into a meaningful pattern. The mind does not recognise that incoming data mean nothing. Even purely random visual or aural phenomena are given a preliminary interpretation by the mind on the basis of what evaluative information it already has stored away. Hence, what we perceive is based on what we already know- our knowledge. Our perception of space also differs from individual to individual, based on the persons psychology, mentality, phy sical state, background, memory, observation and the overall environment together with time Era and Culture. The spatial experience of architectural spaces evolves and becomes established by the experience it provides and we in turn read our experience into it. Experiential spaces evoke an empathetic reaction in us through these projected experiences and the strength of these reactions is determined by our culture, our beliefs and our expectations. We can relate so well to these spaces is because we have strong feelings about our environment and about what we like and dislike. We all have our preferences and prejudices regarding certain spaces as in anything else and our experiences in these spaces determine our attitude towards that space. People looking at pictures have a remarkable ability to enter a role which seems very foreign to them. This can be interpreted into how these experiential spaces play an important role in affecting our mood and behaviour. When we enter these emotive spaces, we are tuned in to the frequency of the space, going through all the emotional processes with it. Architects and designers manipulate space of many kinds: There is first the purely physical space. One cannot see let alone touch space! Yet something that is invisible and untouchable has to be there, just to keep objects apart. This can be easily computed and expressed as how many cubic feet or cubic meters. But there is also perceptual space, the space that can be perceived or seen. To understand this, an example will be in a building with walls of glass, this perceptual space may be extensive and impossible to quantify. Related to perceptual space is conceptual space, which can be defined as the mental map we carry around in our heads, the plan stored in our memory. Concepts that work well are those that users can grasp easily in their minds eye and in which they can perceive with a kind of inevitability. Such spaces can be said to have good conceptual space. The architect also shapes behavioural space, or the space we can actually move through and use. Architecture space is a powerful shaper of behaviour. Winston Churchill said We shape our buildings and afterwards our buildings shape us. One very good example to support this statement is the Houses of Parliament in Germany. When Parliament first begun to meet in the thirteenth century, it had been given the use of rooms in the palace and had later on moved into the palace chapel. A typical narrow and tall Gothic chapel with parallel rows of choir stalls on two sides of the aisle down the center. The members of Parliament sat in the stalls, dividing themselves into two distinctive groups, one the government in power and the other usually the opposition members. During Parliament meetings, members from both parties have to take the brave step of crossing the aisle to change political allegiance. In my opinion, this enforced behaviour has a negative impact on the overall operation of the government bodies as this form of meetings unintentionally made politicians from both sides to feel and sense hostility and unconsciously insinuated the perception of challenge. When the Houses of Parliament had to be rebuilt after a fire in 1834, the Gothic form was followed but Churchill argued that the rebuilding of the Parliament ought to be done with a fan of seats in a broad semicircle, as used in legislative chambers in the United States and France. To change the environment, to give it a different behavioural space, would change the very nature of parliamentary operation. The English had first shaped their architecture, and then that architecture had shaped English government and history. Through Churchills persuasion, the Houses of Parliament were rebuilt with the revised layout. Space can determine or suggest patterns of behaviour and perceptions by its very configuration. There is yet another way of determining spatial experience, and although it is not strictly architectural, architects and designers nevertheless must take it into account. This is personal space, the distance that members of the same species put between themselves. For most animals, this zone of comfort is genetically programmed. However humans have proved themselves to be extremely flexible in their determination of personal space; they seem not to have any programmed genetic spatial code. Instead, humans personal space is culturally determined and is fixed in childhood, so that enforced changes in personal distance later in life which they experience in different spaces may produce different perceptions and emotions. The Italians and the French prefer much more densely packed arrangements in their cafes, compared to the English. Even in the same culture, different sets of rules and factors determining experiences are adopted by men and women. Two unacquainted men will maintain a gr eater distance than two unacquainted women. If an architect or designer violates these unstated rules of personal space and places people in a space that is not catered to these needs, the result may prove to be an environment that is resisted by the users with negative perceptions and responses that follows. Philosophy of Perception Categories of different Perception Historically, the most important philosophical problem posed by perception is the question of how we can gain knowledge via Perception. The philosophy of perception concerns how mental processes the space and the spatial perception depends on how spaces are observed and interpreted by the perceiver. In order to grasp this, we need to understand the different categories of spatial perception. We can categorize perception into 4 categories: Just as one object can give rise to multiple percepts, so an object may fail to give rise to any percept at all. If the percept has no grounding in a persons past experience, the person may literally not perceive it. No perception occurs. Specifications are 1:1 mappings of some aspects of the world into a perceptual array; given such a mapping, no enrichment or experience is required and this perception is called direct perception. This is usually knowledge or information gained through education or other mediums like books, television programmes etc. Direct perception occurs when information from the environment received by our sense organs forms the basis of perceptual experience and these sensory inputs are converted into perceptions of desks and computers, flowers and buildings, cars and planes etc. Some argue that perceptual processes are not direct, but depend on the perceivers expectations and previous knowledge as well as the information available. This controversy is discussed with respect to James J. Gibson (1966) who investigated what information is actually presented to the perceptual systems. This theory of perception is a bottom-up theory and this bottom up processing is also known as data-driven processing or passive perception. Processing is carried out in one direction from the environment to the sensory inputs, with our brains carrying out more complex analysis of the inputs which affects our reaction or behaviour. Passive perception can be surmised as the following sequence of events as: Surrounding input (senses) processing (brain) output (reaction/behaviour) For Gibson: sensation is perception: what you see is what you get. However, this theory cannot explain why perceptions are sometimes inaccurate, example in illusions and perceptual errors like overestimation. Although still supported by main stream philosophers and psychologists, this theory is nowadays losing momentum as more and more people turn to believe in the next one Active Perception instead. The theory of active perception has emerged from extensive research, most notably the works of Richard L. Gregory (1970). This theory is increasingly gaining experimental support. Gregory argued that active perception is a constructivist (indirect) theory of perception which is a top-down theory. Top down processing refers to the use of contextual information in pattern recognition. One simple example to explain this: understanding difficult handwriting is easier when reading complete sentences than when reading single and isolated words. This is because the meanings of the surrounding words provide a context to aid understanding. For Gregory, perception involves making inferences about what we see and trying to make a best guess. Prior knowledge and past experience, he argued are crucial in perception. Thus, active perception can be surmised as a dynamic relationship between Description (in the brain) and the senses and the surrounding, all of which holds true to the linear concept of experience. What one perceives is a result of interplays between ones past experiences and knowledge (the brain) and the surrounding, including ones senses and the interpretation of the perceived space (surrounding). A lot of information reaches the eye, but much is lost by the time it reaches the brain. Therefore the brain has to guess what a person sees based on past experiences. According to Richard Gregory, we actively construct our perception of reality. Our perceptions of the world are hypotheses based on our past experiences and stored information. How Spatial Perception reflects Being The different ways in which we experience a painting, a sculpture, or a work of architecture reflects on each of our individual being. Our environments ( built environments ) are a reflection of ourselves. Architecture should express our aspirations and our sense of optimism about the future. Nothing can possibly show us better or clearer of our innermost self, BEING, other than the very own living space we create. It shows how we want things to be and what we really want in life- freedom, happiness, power, health, luck, love, etc which reveal our characteristics, attitude and most importantly our being. It is also used to express emotions and symbolise ideas that give out certain messages about the owner. What is happening above is actually personalising your own space. This has two meanings to it: One is to personalise it and the other is to personify it. The latter is the main point in this whole essay, the living space representing the person who created it with a hint of the creators being in every corner of the space. This is why we can relate better to our own houses (personal space) than the outside world. But all in all to personalise the space, you personify it and to personify it, what you are doing is simply personalising that living space of yours. This is crucial in understanding the spaces created, the reasons for creating these spaces and how others perceive these spaces (personifying it). This same conception is expressed in Greek columns by a slight outward curvature of profile, the entasis which gives an impression of straining muscles a surprising thing to find in a rigid and unresponsive pillar of stone. This is exactly what happens when we are personifying our own personal space. To personify a thing or the entire space so that it overflows with your being, so that it tastes, smells and feels like you, is so amazingly overpowering over a person who owns it personally. None other than the owner can feel the sense of belonging and comfort created in that amount of space. You own that space and it completely belongs to you, you can even see yourself in that space, you are the space and the space is you. Even civilized people more or less consciously treat lifeless things as though they were imbued with life. Designing one selfs own space to make sure it is unique and truly belongs to you depends very much on your background, interests and expertise. This will make it special and personalised to the person with regards to his or her living space. But nowadays architecture designs are restricted by so call Style and Taste Superficial Cosmetic Professor Colin Stansfield Smith. This problem shows not only how things should be built but also what should be built. Today, in our highly civilized society the houses which ordinary people are doomed to live in and gaze upon are on the whole without quality. This is also why some important buildings are Monuments; some are considered Architecture while others are simply termed buildings. In order to prevent this from happening, we need to have an understanding of the living space. Understanding Living Space does not only mean the way it looks or its construction and materials. Understanding architecture does not mean just the way they look but the creative process of how the building comes into existence and how space is utlized. ¹ We need to visit buildings, look at the processes whereby it came into being, the sense of form, space, light and shade, the size and shape of spaces, the relationship between spaces and how space is utilised. We are looking at the Interior Beings. You must observe how it was designed for a special purpose and how it was attuned to the entire concept and rhythm of a specific era. Architecture provides the physical framework for our lives, so it has a public role a social responsibility. But it is also where we live, work and play, so it has a private role. It has a material form, but it also represents our ideals and aspirations. Consciously or unconsciously everyone is affected by his or her environment. He experiences the house in its reality and in its virtuality, by means of thought and dreams. This can be further explained by using an example. When we look at a portrait of someone laughing or smiling we become cheerful ourselves. If on the other hand, the face is tragic, we feel sad. People looking at pictures have a remarkable ability to enter a role which seems very foreign to them. ¹ This can be interpreted into how architecture plays a vital role in affecting our mood and behaviour. Buildings have their own characteristics and emotions, some buildings are feminine and some are masculine, some buildings are joyous and some are solemn. When we enter these emotive spaces, we are tuned in to the frequency of the buildings, going through all the emotional processes with the architecture. We get to the point where we cannot describe our impressions of an object without treating it as a living thing with its own physiognomy. ¹ This is exceptionally true with architecture as such animation of a building makes it easier to experience its architecture rather than as the addition of many separate technological details. Instead of using professional jargons (architectural vocabulary) that most people do not understand or could not fully understand, causing misunderstanding and confusion when perceiving space, using metaphors to convey certain ideas is so much easier and understandable by people from all professions and social levels. That is one of the many reasons why people like to personify spaces literally. Architecture should be appreciated by everyone from everywhere, which is also another crucial criteria for good architecture as it has a social responsibility once it is erected on the ground. Spatial Perception in the context of ART Whether architecture makes an impression on the observer and what impression it makes, depends not only on the architecture itself but to great extent on the observers susceptibility, his mentality, his education and his entire environment. It also depends on the mood he is in at the moment he is experiencing the architecture. We all have our preferences and prejudices in architecture as in anything else and our experiences determine our attitude towards it. This can be interpreted in the same way like above. The same painting can affect us very differently at different times and that is why it is always so exciting to return to a piece of art work we have seen before to find out whether we still react to it in the same way. This proves that a single building or a specific space can affect us differently, gives us a different feeling each time we experience it again and again. What do you get when you put Art and Building together? Architecture. What do you get when you put Living Space and Architecture together? Living Sculpture. Architecture has been understood as the art of establishing place by bounding space. To distinguish between arts of space and arts of time, between formative and expressive arts, and therefore also between arts of presence and arts of absence. Painting, sculpture and architecture are included among the former, poetry and music among the latter. The most dominant similarity between art and architecture is Art should not be explained; it must be experienced. Architecture is not just simply looking at plans, elevations and sections, there is something more to it it must be experienced, just like art. No photograph, film or video can reproduce the sense of form, space, light and shade, solidity and weight that is gained from visiting buildings. It is not enough to see architecture; you must experience it. You must dwell in the rooms, feel how they close about you and observe how you are naturally led from one room to the other. The most dominant difference between art and architecture is An architect works with forms and mass just as the sculptor does, but his is a functional art. It solves practical problems. In other words, the former has a decisive factor to it: Utility. Indeed, one of the proofs of / criteria for good architecture is that it is being utilized and perceived as the architect or designer had planned, even after a long period of time. We stand before a picture; most sculptures invite us to change our position, perhaps even to walk around them; architecture not only invites us to change our position, but to enter and move around within it. Generalizing, we can say that body and body awareness become more important as we turn from painting to sculpture to architecture. Our experience of sculpture involves the body in a more obvious way than does painting; most sculpture invites us to explore it by moving past it. Robert Morris celebrates the observers relationship to sculpture; his works let observers recognize that they themselves are establishing relationships as they apprehend the object from various positions and under varying conditions of light and spatial context. In a more obvious way, architecture is experienced by the moving body: we approach a building, walk by or around it and perhaps enter it. Architecture is the art into which we walk; it is the art that envelops us. As noted, painters and sculptors af fect our senses and perception by creating changes in patterns, and in proportional relationships between shapes, through the manipulation of light and colour, but only architects shape the space in which we live and through which we move. Architecture Appreciation through Perception Architectural spaces are more than just a stage of our lives; they also reflect the society, the image of an era and most importantly the culture. Therefore the spatial experience provided has become an important factor in the communication of the architecture and the perceiver. The virtue of a successful architecture is based on the language of the experience provided rather than the form itself, which mediated between the perceiver and the space. A successful architecture is also capable of transmitting the philosophy and concepts that the space wants to convey and the experience the space provides is vital in terms of introducing the perceiver to the personality of the space. The spatial experience should be something to be enjoyed and shared by the majority of people. If it is shared more widely because more people understand it, take it seriously; chances are the space has being perceived and appreciated by the public and fulfilled its social responsibility. Enjoyment of space and form is a birthright. This enjoyment can be heightened in two basic ways: through the thoughtful design of buildings and related spaces and through the users development of awareness and perception of architecture. Architecture can be important to the enrichment of life. And after so many years, architects and designers are still learning how users interact with space and form and how skilfully designed space and form respond to human needs. Scenario: Two men attend a concert. One studied music. Has a trained ear. Spent years developing a high degree of music appreciation. Loves great works of great composers. This concert is heaven to him. To the other man, the concert is a bore. He has had little exposure to serious music. No real knowledge of music. Never learned to listen and does not even know that he has been deprived of the pleasure of fine music. He can hardly wait until the concert is over During intermission, the same two people react very differently as they walk around and within the concert building experiencing its space and form. Now the music lover is bored. He knows almost nothing about buildings. He is visually illiterate. The other person, however, has spent years developing an appreciation of buildings. He has a trained eye. He derives pleasure from the quality of space and form of the great hall. He is stirred to maximum enjoyment. To him, architecture is visual music. The term architecture appreciation is used to promote the idea that architecture can be enjoyed, much as the performing or visual arts, physically through the senses. Architecture appreciation, like music appreciation or art appreciation is learned. In music, it is learning how to hear. In art, how to see. In the case of architecture, it is learning how to perceive. Enjoying buildings requires some knowledge and some practice in perceiving space and form. You need to know something about buildings, you need to hone your awareness and you need to know something about yourself too. How do you respond to space and form? Architecture is a personal, enjoyable, necessary experience. A person perceives and appreciates space and form from three distinctly different but interrelated attitudes: from the physical, from the emotional, and from the intellectual. The architecture experience evokes a response which fulfils physical, emotional, and intellectual needs, effecting an enjoyable interaction between the person and the building. Space perception is happening everywhere, anytime. Wherever people are, there are buildings. Where buildings are, there are spatial experience. Appreciation of the works of creative architects and designers demands creativity from our part. Through accumulated experience and knowledge we design our own appreciation and experience. References Frank D.K Ching, 2007, Architecture: Form, Space Order, John Wiley Sons Inc. , Hoboken, New Jersey Morris Hicky Morgan, 1960, The Ten books of architecture, Dover Publications, New York Panayotis Tournikiotis, 1965, The Historiography of Modern Architecture, Faber Faber, London, Chapter Six: Architecture, Time Past, and Time Future, pg 181 Pierre Von Mesis, 1998, Elements of Architecture: From Form to Place, E F Spon, New York, Chapter 4, Measure and Balance, pp 57-72 Thomas Gordon Smith, 2003, Vitruvius on Architecture, Monacelli Press, New York Steen Eiler Rasmussen, 1959, Experiencing Architecture, Chapman Hall Hazel Conway and Rowan Roenisch, 2005, Understanding Architecture An introduction to architecture and architectural history, London ; New York : Routledge Christopher Alexander, 1979, The Timeless Way of Building, Oxford University Press, New York Malcolm Quantrill Bruce Webb, 1991, Constancy and Change in Architecture, College Station, Texas AM University Press. Leland M.Roth, 2007, Understanding Architecture: Its elements, history and meaning, Boulder, Colo. : Westview Press. William Wayne Caudill, 1978, Architecture and You How to experience and enjoy Buildings, New York : Whitney Library of Design Steven Holl, 1949, Questions of Perception Phenomenology of Architecture, Tokyo : San Francisco : a+u Pub. ; William Stout Gaston Bachelard, 1994, The Poetics of Space, Boston, Mass. : Beacon Press